Cervical cancer is the second most common cancer in people assigned female at birth (AFAB) worldwide, with about 569,000 new cases each year.1 Cervical cancer is caused by human papillomavirus (HPV).1
Excessive alcohol consumption has a major impact on the health system and disease forestalling. It causes health implications, including a higher risk of developing a variety of cancers, with a possible increased threat of cancer recurrence.
Heavy alcohol use increases the threat of cervical cancer recurrence and mortality. Implicit factors include the primary metabolite of ethanol, acetaldehyde, and oxidative stress, leading to the development of carcinogenesis.
Cervical cancer is cancer of the cells in the cervix. There are two major types of cervical cancer: squamous cell carcinomas and adenocarcinomas.
Squamous cells are the flat, skin-like cells covering the cervix's external surface. 80-90% of cervical cancers are squamous cell cancers.
Adenocarcinoma is a cancer that begins in the mucus-producing gland cells. Adenocarcinoma is less common than squamous cell cancer but has become more common in recent times. 10-20% of cervical cancers are adenocarcinomas.
The following threats are associated with cervical cancer:
The primary cause of precancerous and cancerous cervical lesions is infection with oncogenic HPV.2 Most cases of cervical cancer arise as a result of infection with HPV 16 and 18.1 The infection is generally transmitted by sexual contact, causing squamous intraepithelial lesions.6
Infection with Chlamydia trachomatis contributes to an increased threat of cervical squamous cell carcinoma. C. trachomatis infection may increase the threat of squamous cell carcinoma by escalating host vulnerability to HPV or accelerating HPV-mediated effects.6
The threat of developing an infection from high-risk HPV types is advanced in AFAB with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The results of the studies on the relationship between HIV and cervical cancer suggested an advanced rate of persistent HPV infection with multiple oncogenic viruses and invasive cervix carcinoma among people with HIV.6
There’s an increased threat of cervical cancer in people with multiple sexual partners. This increased threat is generally attributable to an increased threat of HPV infection. Sexual experience at aged periods is associated with a lower age of diagnosis, while early age at first intercourse is a threat factor for cervical cancer.6
Studies have shown that full-term gestation increases the threat of invasive cervical cancer. Moreover, high parity increases the threat of cancer in AFAB.6
The use of combined oral contraceptives (OC) is associated with an increased threat of cervical cancer. It has been reported that the use of oral contraceptive methods for 5 years or more can increase the threat of cancer.6
Various studies have shown that smoking is one of the most important threat factors for invasive cervical cancer. Smoking can increase the threat of cervical neoplasia through several mechanisms. One of the mechanisms is the regional induction of immune repression by tobacco metabolites. In addition, chemicals in cigarettes, such as nicotine and its metabolites, can cause DNA damage in squamous cells.6
Obesity increases the threat of cervical carcinoma. Due to the conversion of androgen to oestrogen in the peripheral adipose tissue, obesity (particularly after menopause) is considered to be a marker of increased sex hormones.6
Consuming a healthy and balanced diet releases higher levels of antioxidants. Antioxidants can regulate immune responses and reduce viral replication and gene expression. There are possible biological mechanisms regarding the protective effects of the nutritive factors against cervical cancer. Vitamins C and E play a part in increasing the mucosal response to infection and protection against free radicals and oxidants. Vitamins C and E can inhibit the conformation of DNA adducts induced by cigarettes.6
The part of host genetic sensitivity in the pathogenesis of cervical cancer has been researched by several studies. The results of a study by Wang and colleagues showed that host hereditary variants may be responsible for determining the risk of cervical cancer pathogenesis in two important stages: the persistence of HPV and the progression of the disease.6
Heavy alcohol use increases the threat of cervical cancer recurrence and mortality.4 Cancer survivors are more likely to be former drinkers.
Alcohol intake influences cervical cancer in various ways, some of which include:
Acetaldehyde is poisonous and can breed endless DNA damage, which can lead to cancer. The liver converts most of the ethanol in alcoholic beverages we consume into acetaldehyde. Consumption of too much alcohol makes the processing of acetaldehyde slow. Acetaldehyde then builds up in the body, which can beget irreversible DNA damage, leading to cancer.
Higher alcohol consumption can increase circulating oestrogen levels. This increase could lead to cancer in people AFAB through:
The association between alcohol consumption and cervical cancer may be due to the conversion of ethanol into carcinogenic acetaldehyde. The risk is especially higher in AFAB with a high body mass index and AFAB with a history of smoking.4
The risk of cervical cancer increases with age, with the highest incidence ratio found in AFAB aged 50–59 years for in situ cervical cancer and 60+ years for invasive cervical cancer. Alcoholic people AFAB have a higher risk of in situ cervical cancer, with a standardised incidence ratio of 1.7. Alcoholic people AFAB also have a higher risk of invasive cervical cancer, with a standardised incidence ratio (SIR) of 2.9 and a 95% confidence interval (CI) of 2.4-3.5.3
The vaccine protects against the types of HPV that mostly bring about cervical cancer. HPV vaccination is recommended for preteens aged 11 to 12 years but can be given starting at age 9. It is also recommended for everyone through age 26 years if they are not vaccinated already.1
HPV vaccination only prevents new HPV infections but does not treat existing infections.
There are two screening tests that can help find changes that could cause cervical cancer:
The use of condoms has been related to a lower rate of cervical cancer.5
Alcoholic people AFAB have a higher risk of in situ and invasive cervical cancer, which increases with age, with the highest risk observed in people AFAB aged 50-59 years for in situ cervical cancer and 60+ years for invasive cervical cancer. This risk is especially higher in people AFAB with higher body mass index and people AFAB with a history of smoking or using menopausal hormone therapy.
It is important to be aware that lifestyle choices that you make every day play a key role in predisposing you or reducing your risks of cervical cancer.
Choices such as maintaining a healthy weight, reducing alcohol consumption, engaging in physical activities, and getting vaccinated against HPV are essential for reducing cervical cancer risk. It is also worthy of importance to know that regular screening and HPV vaccination are important in tackling and reducing the risk of cervical cancer.
Being aware of the risks and taking proactive steps to maintain a healthy lifestyle can help women reduce their risk of cervical cancer and take control of their health.
