Overview
What is dyscalculia?
Did you know that internationally, 5% of primary school-age children have been diagnosed with dyscalculia?1
Dyscalculia is a learning difficulty associated with acquiring arithmetic skills (understanding numbers, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) and numeracy which is not related to low intelligence or insufficient mathematics-related education at school. It usually occurs in primary school-age children (5-11 years old).1
Demographic distribution and impact of dyscalculia
Dyscalculia impacts those diagnosed by impairing the typical development of numerical and arithmetic skills required in daily life activities in school and work.1
Many children develop a negative outlook on counting and arithmetic, leading to anxiety about mathematics or a generalised phobia at school to mathematics. Into adulthood, can impact employment opportunities, and statistics show 22% of young adults are within this category.1
It should be noted that dyscalculia is characterised as a learning difficulty as it is not caused by diminished intellectual thinking which is diagnosed in intellectual disabilities.
Positive impacts of early diagnosis and interventions of dyscalculia
Individuals with dyscalculia often have accompanying comorbid conditions (other learning difficulties such as dyslexia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) and cognitive dysfunctionality (deficits in memory retention, attention, processing visual and auditory information, learning, speed of processing information, problem-solving and moving muscles to perform daily activities).1,2
Early diagnosis and intervention will limit the numerical and arithmetic difficulties within the early nursery years before the school and education phase begins.1
Complications of undiagnosed dyscalculia
Dyscalculia when left undiagnosed and without interventions can cause;
- Issues with employment
- Difficulties with daily life activities involving arithmetic and numerical skills (e.g. counting, managing money, and determining quantities)
- Absence from school due to phobia of mathematics and general education
- Difficulty and low performance in mathematics school tests
- Development of mental health conditions such as depression1,3
Dyscalculia symptoms, risk factors, and causes
Symptoms
The symptoms of dyscalculia include–
- Difficulty solving mathematical problems
- Difficulty with mental (solving maths problems within the head without calculator, paper, and pen or computer support) arithmetic and numeracy
- Difficulty with written arithmetic and numeracy
- Difficulty processing numbers and using quantities in nursery/preschool years
- Difficulty visualising and drawing geometric shapes in 3D format1,3
Risk factors and causes
Risk factors of dyscalculia include:
- Family history and genetic predisposition (parents or siblings having difficulty in arithmetic and having been diagnosed with learning disorders)
- Having a traumatic brain injury, neurological and psychiatric disease/s which can cause acquired dyscalculia
- Premature birth
- Having other comorbid conditions that cause cognitive deficits
- Being diagnosed with a linguistic development disorder at nursery age
- Being from a low-socioeconomic background/area with a lack of access to education facilities1,3
Causes of dyscalculia include;
Detection of dyscalculia
Screening tools and assessment
Screening tools used by psychologists for assessing dyscalculia include;
- Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V) which tests reading, writing, and mathematical fluency
- Key Math (KeyMath-3) presents maths problems to be solved and tests students on choosing suitable arithmetical operations needed to solve a problem
- Wechsler Individual Achievement Test for maths fluency only (WIAT-III) - maths subtest tests solving mathematical problems, numerical operations, and maths fluency
- Feifer Assessment of Mathematics (FAM) tests assess retrieving maths facts, numeric and spatial memory & estimation of numbers, etc to test and diagnose appropriate subtypes of dyscalculia
Diagnosis of dyscalculia
According to DSM-V, criteria for diagnosing dyscalculia include--
Issues with;
- Number processing
- Memorising mathematical facts
- Ability to do maths calculations
- Solving different combinations of maths problems (maths reasoning)8
Specific questions may be asked to assess the history of an individual who is to be diagnosed with dyscalculia.
These would include;
- Family history - if someone in their immediate family had difficulties with numeracy?
- Did the individual find numeracy difficult or did it begin after a brain injury or a psychiatric illness?
- Did the individual attend a state or special needs-oriented school, and how severe and difficult do they find mathematics?
- Could the individual count to ten, count objects, and understand quantities in preschool?
- Other questions; include do they have language development difficulties, difficulties in; drawing geometric shapes and understanding 3D shapes, difficulty in maintaining a schedule with multiple tasks included within it, their reading and writing ability, and do they feel anxious thinking about mathematics
- Determining their progress and grades in mathematics tests
- Interviews with the individual, and their parents/guardians, teachers, and carers1
Interventions for dyscalculia
Interventions for dyscalculia involve;
- Developing individualised education plans (IEPs) which include accommodations for students with dyscalculia (e.g. extra time on tests and teachers giving personalised support to students with classwork)
- Multisensory instruction - teaching maths to students through images, and sound, and providing direct practical experience in school (e.g. online mathematical games, audiovisual explanations (for example teachers using objects to explain counting))
- Assistive technologies on tablets, phones, and computers - calculators with a large display and announcements by a voice as you click buttons, apps with the functionality of solving a maths problem that the user inputs, and other interactive mathematics learning apps. This gives the individual confidence and reduces anxiety about approaching mathematical problems
- Individualised, targeted group intervention with numeracy and rewarding children when they make efforts towards solving mathematical problems / finding an answer
Case study of an individual with dyscalculia
In a case study, an individual instructor-led one-to-one session with Melissa, who is diagnosed with dyscalculia was held.
This video was then analysed post-session to inform the next video-led maths teaching session on algebra.
This helped the instructor to understand how Melissa solved problems; in an unconventional manner, and then to provide different tools to increase and refine her understanding of maths.
These tools were developed by input from; an adult with dyscalculia, from previous research on teaching algebra to nondisabled students, and what Melissa reported was less and more effective for her while learning algebra.12
Ongoing research on dyscalculia
Neuroimaging research on dyscalculia
In a study using Voxel-based morphometry (a brain imaging technique) on children with developmental dyscalculia, the analysis showed reduced white matter volume in the right temporal-parietal cortex (this part of the brain has functions of number processing, problem-solving, and literacy).13, 14
Genetic research on dyscalculia
A study showed genome-wide data of 200 children with reading and spelling difficulties correlated with the prevalence of mathematical disabilities, as proven by the genome-wide significant variant for mathematical abilities.
This variant rs133885 encoded a gene MYO18B, with an unknown function, but has been associated with the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) in the parietal cortex associated with numerical processing. Structural magnetic resonance imaging data from 79 neurologically healthy adults with the MYO18B genotype showed that they had a notably lower depth of their right IPS.15
Another gene in GWAS studies is ROBO1, whose function is associated with neuronal proliferation and axon guidance in neurodevelopmental stages. A study looked at 3–6-year-old unschooled children and assessed if brain-gene associations predicted mathematical performance in school. A connection between maths candidate genes and grey matter volume was detected only for ROBO1.16
Future studies
Future studies could focus on;
- The typical and atypical neurodevelopmental trajectory of developmental dyscalculia
- The effect of interventions such as schooling, therapies, and multisensory education on the brain
- Determining suitable genetic markers of dyscalculia to diagnose it14,17
Future tools and technologies for individuals with dyscalculia
- Further developments include using AI to identify student weaknesses, strengths, and improvements in arithmetic and numeracy. AI could be utilised to provide tailored feedback to students' answers and produce a teaching plan. Furthermore, there could be AI tutors tailored to students at different progress levels
- Using virtual and augmented reality to create an interactive experience for students to learn maths in which they can enjoy it
FAQ’s
How early can dyscalculia be identified?
Dyscalculia can be identified in the nursery years before school education begins for a child.
However, challenges with arithmetic and number sense may appear later in life.
What’s the best way to support a child with dyscalculia?
Provide multisensory instruction (such as toy shapes or colourful cardboard cutouts/cards displaying numbers and arithmetic concepts to provide an enjoyable, hands-on, visual, and auditory explanation of mathematics).
Secondly, use positive reinforcement to reward the child for their efforts in mathematics and allow them to grow confidence about their ability to do mathematics.
Use various methods such as online interactive games and apps such as talking calculators to assist a child’s learning.
Summary
To summarise, early detection and intervention for dyscalculia ensures individuals can perform better at school, allow prospects of employment, and feel less anxious about doing mathematics and being at school. Interventions include individualised education plans tailored to students' needs, virtual and online mathematics teaching programs, AI tutors tailored to students, AI feedback on maths problems, and AI lesson plan generators. Future studies could focus on the genetic markers that can diagnose dyscalculia, the neurodevelopmental process of dyscalculia, and the effect of interventions on dyscalculia.
References
- Kaufmann L, von Aster M. The diagnosis and management of dyscalculia. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International. 2012;109(45): 767–778. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2012.0767.
- Lam RW, Kennedy SH, McIntyre RS, Khullar A. Cognitive dysfunction in major depressive disorder: effects on psychosocial functioning and implications for treatment. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie. 2014;59(12): 649–654. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4304584/
- Haberstroh S, Schulte-Körne G. The diagnosis and treatment of dyscalculia. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International. 2019;116(7): 107–114. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2019.0107.
- Lorusso ML, Vernice M, Dieterich M, Brizzolara D, Mariani E, De Masi S, et al. The process and criteria for diagnosing specific learning disorders: indications from the Consensus Conference promoted by the Italian National Institute of Health. Annali dell’Istituto Superiore Di Sanita. 2014;50(1): 77–89. https://doi.org/10.4415/ANN_14_01_12.
- Lewis KE, Sweeney G, Thompson GM, Adler RM, Alhamad K. Dyscalculia in algebra: a case study. Insights into Learning Disabilities. 2022;19(1): 3–36. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1341307.
- Rykhlevskaia E. Neuroanatomical correlates of developmental dyscalculia: combined evidence from morphometry and tractography. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 2009;3. https://doi.org/10.3389/neuro.09.051.2009.
- McCaskey U, von Aster M, O’Gorman R, Kucian K. Persistent differences in brain structure in developmental dyscalculia: a longitudinal morphometry study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 2020;14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.00272.
- Ludwig KU, Sämann P, Alexander M, Becker J, Bruder J, Moll K, et al. A common variant in Myosin-18B contributes to mathematical abilities in children with dyslexia and intraparietal sulcus variability in adults. Translational Psychiatry. 2013;3(2): e229–e229. https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2012.148.
- Visibelli E, Vigna G, Nascimben C, Benavides-Varela S. Neurobiology of numerical learning. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 2024;158: 105545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105545.
- Carvalho MRS, Haase VG. Genetics of dyscalculia 1: in search of genes. In: Fritz A, Haase VG, Räsänen P (eds.) International Handbook of Mathematical Learning Difficulties. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019. p. 329–343. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97148-3_21.
