Introduction

Mojiang henipavirus (MojV) is a family of highly pathogenic zoonotic viruses severely affecting humans and other mammalian species. Infection with MojV has been seen to cause severe respiratory and encephalitic disease, pneumonia vascular disease, and brain infection.

Our immune systems use various cells and protective mechanisms to fight off these viruses aided by therapies and vaccines.¹ Understanding its origins and common symptoms may help you protect yourself and get early access to treatment. It is important to seek help early because the CDC reports a 50% - 100% fatality rate in recorded outbreaks.

The family of henipaviruses has been said to originate from bats but some sources claim that it originates from rats. There is little information on this topic and as it is not a pressing issue, research on this topic is limited. This article aims to present the origins of the disease, common symptoms, genetic features, preventative measures, and strategies for MojV management. 

Understanding mojiang henipavirus

Brief background on MojV discovery and characteristics

MojV has been traced to various parts of the world and has been thought to originate in bats. A few of the countries it has been traced to are listed below:²

• China
• Malaysia 
• Singapore
• Bangladesh
• India
• Indonesia
• Australia
• Cambodia
• Thailand
• Papua New Guinea
• Madagascar
• Ghana

Some sources believe it originated from different species of bats, but rodent species may also be a reservoir for the disease. It can be transmitted orally, urogenitally (through contact with faeces), and in the birthing fluids of pteropod bats.

The disease spillover is thought to be caused by interactions between bats and livestock or bats and humans through usage of livestock such as pigs as intermediate hosts. Understanding how it spreads is essential for preventing severe reactions and controlling its spread.²

Foodborne transmission 

Consuming raw date sap that has been contaminated has been one of the most common routes of transmission for one strain of the virus since it can survive in the sugar-rich consistency. Consuming the bat directly however, has not shown a great rate of transmission but rather the virus needs to be picked up by another host animal such as a dog that licked infected sap, and then the dog must pass it on to the human host. This can be through salivary transmission or handling of the dog’s faecal matter (Foodborne Transmission). 

Human transmission

The numerous strains mean it is possible to pick up this disease from several sources. According to the CDC one strain, the Hendra Virus, cannot be transmitted from human to human but rather requires interaction with an infected horse and its fluids. The Nipah Virus has been reported to be transmitted through respiratory droplets from infected individuals but can also be transmitted through infected pigs, rats or bats. 

Genetic composition

Mojiang henipavirus falls under the umbrella of the genus Henapivirus and there are four other species/strains recognized alongside it. MojV differs in its glycoprotein structure and its folding pattern allows us to differentiate it from the other strains in the family. Its host-receptor binding is dissimilar to the other strains and is less likely to be detected in serological screening studies.

It is an infectious disease that is hard to identify and diagnose.⁶ The entire genome consists of 6 genes 18,234 nucleotides long and contains at least 9 proteins. The virus invades the human replication cycle using the host cell’s machinery to replicate.⁷

Symptoms and health risks associated with MojV infection

Symptoms associated with MojV vary depending on the strain and the individual but here are some common ones. Common symptoms associated with Hendra Virus and Nipah Virus according to the CDC:

• Dizziness 
• Headache
• Fever
• Myalgias
• General Influenza-like symptoms 
• It can also progress to severe encephalitis with:
  • Confusion
  • Seizures
  • Coma 
  • Respiratory distress (MojV Symptoms)

It’s possible to develop late-onset encephalitis from Hendra Virus months, or even years, after the acute onset. Langya virus is another strain in this family of viruses and has affected a total of 35 people in recent years. It presents as a common cold with fever, cough, and fatigue with 0 reported deaths.³

Nipah virus

Many sources mention the Nipah Virus in particular due to its fatality rate and the severity of this strain. This strain also comes from bats and infected fruit but can be transmitted from human to human through contaminated bodily fluids.⁴

Symptoms

Nipah Virus presents with the common symptoms listed previously during the early stages but can progress into much more severe illnesses such as these:

• Encephalitis: brain inflammation
• Kidney Failure 
• Respiratory Problems
• Meningitis: inflammation of the lining in the brain - can cause severe headaches⁴

Risk mitigation strategies

If you find yourself travelling to any of the countries mentioned above where MojV is prevalent, there are a few ways to protect yourself from contracting it as well as any other virus. Here are a few:^4,5

• Always wash your hands, especially before eating or drinking 
• Cover your mouth and nose when you sneeze or cough
• Avoid sharing food, drinks, utensils, or anything where you potentially share saliva
• Avoid contact with animals, especially ones that may be infected
• Only consume fruit that has been washed and bought from a trusted market
• Stay away from anyone who may be ill 
• Avoid contact with other people if you are ill 

Managing outbreaks

Since the virus has had minimal reported cases and access to this data is not easily acquired, there is little information on how to manage an MojV epidemic. Flexible coordination between domestic and international medical teams, clinics, and organisations in managing the spread of an outbreak is essential.

To add to this, governing bodies must be transparent about the roots of these viruses and the number of individuals they affect for proper measures to be set in place. There are currently no widely available testing kits, making diagnosis difficult, particularly in the early stages, as it may be dismissed as the common cold. 

Our understanding of this disease is also an issue as there is conflicting information on the severity, clinical presentations, and other important information about MojV. Since it is a rare infectious disease with minimal reports of outbreaks it is unlikely this virus will be examined in-depth. This means the genetic features of the disease are also poorly understood. If vaccines and therapies are to be developed then the precise genetic mechanisms must be understood.⁸

Emergency responses

While MojV is not a great risk to the human population, domestic animals and livestock are at risk of being greatly decimated if the virus circulates amongst them. One case of a single mare infecting an entire horse farm in Australia has been recorded. These horses experienced severe respiratory distress and one human also contracted the disease but thankfully they all survived. If we invest resources into studying the disease in animals rather than humans, we may be able to design effective vaccines keeping our livestock safe. 

Summary

This article has covered an overview of the family of henipaviruses and examined a couple of strains but focused on the mojiang henipavirus. Most of the strains are thought to originate from bats, some from horses, and MojV from rodents.

While there is conflicting evidence on this topic, it is best practice to stay away from animals that appear especially while travelling in a foreign country. Many East Asian countries and a few African and South American countries are thought to be the origins of this family of viruses but there have been cases reported in Australia and other western countries as well.

Foodborne transmission is the easiest route of infection in rodents or bats excreting bodily fluids which end up in fruit sap. Human-to-human transmission also occurs if there is contact and exchange of saliva with an infected individual. This is common in homes where the sick person is taken care of by their family members.

This article also reviewed the genetic composition of the virus family and common symptoms to watch out for. As it presents similarly to the common cold, it is easily overlooked and dismissed. However, if left untreated, it can develop into severe life-threatening conditions such as encephalitis, kidney failure, meningitis, or respiratory failure. 

Additionally, the rarity of this disease means it is not a pressing topic in many research centres and very little is known about it. This means if an outbreak does occur, there are very few resources or past cases to help guide its management. Although, it is hard to determine how rare the disease is due to the possibility that not all epidemics have been reported.

One risk management strategy is to enhance transparency in communicating disease spread within communities to healthcare organisations and government bodies. In the future, if MojV is to be contained and not develop into a large-scale epidemic, it is crucial that more research goes into this disease and organisations co-operate to pool their resources.