Introduction
What is campylobacter?
Campylobacter is a bacterium that causes the foodborne disease Campylobacteriosis.1 The two forms of this bacterium are C. jejuni (subspecies jejuni) and C. coli. Other less common forms include C. lari and C. upsaliensis.2 They are most commonly found in food animals (hence a zoonosis disease) such as poultry, cattle and ostrich and are transmitted through humans eating raw or undercooked poultry or having contact with contaminated water.3 According to the WHO, Campylobacter is 1 of the 4 key global causes of diseases such as human gastroenteritis, causing diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever, nausea, and vomiting.1 Immunocompromised patients suffering from this disease may suffer from more severe forms of this disease, but this varies from person to person.4 Onset of this occurs within 2-5 days or 1-10 days and lasts 3- 6 days.5 Individuals affected with this disease should drink plenty of watery fluids to remove toxic waste from the body.6 In this article, we will discuss the risks and preventative measures that should be taken to prevent this disease from affecting individuals and maintain public health.
Structure and how it functions
Campylobacter bacteria have high motility and a spiral or curved shape with a flagellum. They move through the gut in a corkscrew motion, which helps them to endocytose into the host cell tissues.7 Campylobacter is a gram-negative bacterium with a lipid bilayer, which acts as an endotoxin to prevent it from being recognised by immune cells. It adheres to gut enterocytes to release toxins and disrupt the gut flora balance.8
Why is poultry a reservoir of campylobacter?
Poultry serves as a reservoir for Campylobacter because the bacteria can survive in the intestines (colon and caecum) of certain species. The nutrients present in the intestines provide a perfect habitat for the growth of campylobacter.9 Campylobacter is found on the feathers and skin of poultry and spreads when the infected animal is touched.10
| Risks with Campylobacter in Poultry | Preventative Measures for Campylobacter in Poultry |
| Foodborne Illness: Symptoms include diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever, nausea, and severe conditions like Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS).1 | Cooking Meat Fully: Cook poultry to an internal temperature of around 75°C (165°F) to ensure all bacteria are killed.11 |
| Cross-Contamination: Risk from unwashed hands or contaminated inanimate objects.2 | Storing Meat Properly: Store poultry at appropriate temperatures to prevent bacteria growth (e.g., refrigerate at 4°C or below; freeze at -18°C or below).11 |
| Improper Cooking: Cooking poultry at a temperature lower than required increases the risk.2 | Hygiene and Sanitation: Maintain high standards of hygiene and sanitation in food handling and preparation areas.1 |
| Confined Animal Areas: Poultry kept in confined spaces increases the likelihood of Campylobacter spreading9 | Separate Equipment: Use separate equipment (cutting boards, knives) for raw poultry and other foods to avoid cross-contamination |
| Faecal Matter Contamination: Faecal matter in the environment can spread Campylobacter to animals.9 | Hand Washing: Wash hands properly with soap and water before and after handling raw poultry.1 |
| Undetected Disease: Campylobacter can persist in animals without symptoms, making detection difficult.8 | Surface Sanitisation: Clean and sanitize surfaces thoroughly after handling raw poultry1 |
| Processing Contamination: Campylobacter can spread from the intestines to the meat during processing9 | Proper Thawing: Thaw poultry in the refrigerator or using the cold-water method to prevent bacterial growth.10 |
Regulatory measures11
- Educating the public about safe poultry handling and cooking practices, and informing the public of health agencies (e.g., CDC for poultry handling)
- Guidelines and educational materials on safe food handling
- Government Regulations (e.g., USDA and FDA): penalties for non-compliance
- Standards and guidelines to maintain hygiene
- Monitoring and inspections - to detect Campylobacter contamination in poultry.
- Training programs for industry professionals
- Farm-to-fork traceability systems track poultry products from farms to consumers, facilitating responses to contamination incidents
Future research12
Detecting and controlling Campylobacter in poultry. Using technology to identify the presence of campylobacter in poultry and prevent its spread.
Advanced detection technologies
- Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Biosensors: To rapidly, accurately detect Campylobacter presence with high sensitivity and specificity, even in small samples
- Portable Testing Devices: These cost-effective devices are used to detect Campylobacter
- Enhanced Sampling and Analysis: Taking small samples at different poultry sites to identify the presence of campylobacter
- Make better protocols to identify bacteria in poultry
- Automated Sampling Systems to reduce human error in detecting bacteria by streamlining the sampling process
- Genomic and Computational Approaches, such as WGS and machine learning, to understand campylobacter strains make it easier and faster to identify and make predictive models, respectively.
- Testing novel antimicrobial agents and treatments to reduce bacterial levels in poultry, along with exploring more traditional antimicrobial intervention methods.
Summary
Campylobacter is a prevalent type of bacteria frequently found in poultry, and it poses significant health risks if not properly managed. Understanding the causes of Campylobacter contamination, diagnosing infections, and implementing effective treatment strategies are critical for preventing severe health consequences. This article provides an in-depth examination of how Campylobacter affects the human gut at a molecular level, highlighting its impact on gastrointestinal health.
We have explored the various risks associated with Campylobacter, focusing particularly on poultry, which serves as the primary reservoir for this pathogen. The article discusses how Campylobacter spreads through poultry and emphasises the importance of preventative measures to curb its proliferation. Key preventative strategies include cooking poultry to the correct internal temperature, practicing safe food handling techniques, and adhering to rigorous hygiene standards. By addressing these critical areas, we can significantly reduce the risk of Campylobacter contamination.
Understanding these factors is essential for making informed decisions regarding food safety and effective prevention strategies. By applying this knowledge, we can better protect public health, reduce the incidence of Campylobacter-related foodborne illnesses, and improve overall food safety practices. This comprehensive approach helps ensure that both consumers and industry professionals are equipped to manage and mitigate the risks associated with this widespread pathogen.
FAQs
Campylobacter and how it interacts with the poultry immune system?13
- Alters surface proteins, allowing it to survive in the gut
What are the environmental factors affecting Campylobacter survival in poultry farms?9
- High humidity
- Poor sanitation
- Poultry house overcrowding
How do different strains of campylobacter affect their detection and control?9
- Varying resistance to antimicrobial treatments and detection methods
- Tailoring techniques are required based on characteristic strains.
How does Campylobacter affect farming economics?1
- Increase economic loss
- Increase cost
- Reduced customers
- Decrease in profitability
Read on
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- What Is Campylobacter Infection?
- What Is Toxic Megacolon
- What Is Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth
- What Is a Bacterial Infection
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References
- World Health Organization. Campylobacter [Internet]. Who.int. World Health Organization: WHO; 2020. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/campylobacter
- Facciolà A, Riso R, Avventuroso E, Visalli G, Delia SA, Laganà P. Campylobacter: from microbiology to prevention. Journal of preventive medicine and hygiene [Internet]. 2017 Jun;58(2):E79–92. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5584092/
- Chomel BB. Zoonoses. Encyclopedia of Microbiology [Internet]. 2009;820–9. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7149995/
- Campylobacter Infection: Causes, Symptoms, Management, Prevention [Internet]. Cleveland Clinic. 2021. Available from: https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15251-campylobacter-infection
- Campylobacteriosis (Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment) [Internet]. patient.info. Available from: https://patient.info/doctor/campylobacter-enteritis
- Popkin BM, D’Anci KE, Rosenberg IH. Water, Hydration, and Health. Nutrition Reviews [Internet]. 2020 Jul 20;68(8):439–58. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2908954/
- Stahl M, Frirdich E, Vermeulen J, Badayeva Y, Li X, Vallance BA, et al. The Helical Shape of Campylobacter jejuni Promotes In Vivo Pathogenesis by Aiding Transit through Intestinal Mucus and Colonization of Crypts. Infection and Immunity [Internet]. 2016 Dec 1;84(12):3399–407. Available from: https://iai.asm.org/content/84/12/3399
- Perez-Perez GI, Blaser MJ. Campylobacter and Helicobacter [Internet]. Nih.gov. University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston; 2010. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8417/
- Hakeem MJ, Lu X. Survival and Control of Campylobacter in Poultry Production Environment. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 2021 Jan 29;10.
- Xu X, Rothrock MJ, Govindaraj Dev Kumar, Mishra A. Assessing the Risk of Seasonal Effects of Campylobacter Contaminated Broiler Meat Prepared In-Home in the United States. Foods. 2023 Jun 30;12(13):2559–9.
- Meat Temperature Guide: Beef, Steak, Pork, Chicken, and More [Internet]. Healthline. 2019. Available from: https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/meat-temperature#:~:text=Safe%20internal%20cooking%20temperatures%20vary
- Hankel J, Gibson T, Skov J, Andersen KB, Dargatz M, Kappel A, et al. Monitoring of Campylobacter jejuni in a chicken infection model by measuring specific volatile organic compounds and by qPCR. Scientific Reports [Internet]. 2022 Jul 11 [cited 2022 Oct 6];12(1):11725. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-15863-7
- Mortada M, Cosby DE, Akerele G, Ramadan N, Oxford J, Shanmugasundaram R, et al. Characterizing the immune response of chickens to Campylobacter jejuni (Strain A74C). Kogut MH, editor. PLOS ONE. 2021 Mar 15;16(3):e0247080.
